asked to verify that you want to removethe user, as shown in Figure 22-6.4.Check the Delete User s Home Directory box ifyou want to remove the user s old belongings. Be sure that you don t need any of the user sold belongings. This is a good time to refer toTechnique 50 and back up the user s homedirectory before deleting it. 5.Click Yes to remove the user s identity andhome directory. Figure 22-5:The Fedora User Manager. Figure 22-6:Verify that you want to remove the user saccount. After the user is removed from the user list, and hisor her home directory is gone, you can use kfindtosearch for any orphaned files that the user may haveleft in other directories. To search for other files, fol- low these steps: 1.Open the Main Menu and choose Run Command. 2.Enter kfindin the Command field and click Run. The KFind window opens (see Figure 22-7) to theName/Location tab. The Name field should con- tain a *. Enter a /in the Look In field. Figure 22-7:The KFind window. 3.Click the Properties tab, and enter the user IDof your ex-user in the Files Owned by User field. 4.Click the Find button, and the search begins. When the search is complete, the frame at thebottom of the window displays all the now- orphaned files previously owned by the ex-user. 5.Right-click the filename to open a pop-up menu, displaying the filename at the top, followed byyour file management choices: Copy Delete Open Directory Open With Open Properties27_
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Old UsersandTheirFilesWhen users leave, the clutter they may be leavingbehind can tie up valuable system resources. Whystore all of their old files, which aren t important any- more, when you can use the disk space for fresh data? After you ve made sure that you ve saved any of theex-users important documents, you can remove alltraces of these users and their files with a few mouseclicks. Removing (and adding) user accounts is easy, and each distribution provides a graphical tool thatallows you to manage users without resorting to acommand line. In this section, we show you how to remove useraccounts with the Fedora User Manager. Ifyou reaMandrake user, use the Mandrake UserManage- menttool (found in the main menu at System. Configuration.Other.User Administration). IfSuSEis your favorite flavor, use the User and GroupAdministration tool in YaST (System.YaST. Security and User. A quick follow-up with kfindwill find any filesthat former users might have stashed on yoursystem, but that are off the beaten path. Before removing a user s account, make noteof his or her user ID. You ll need it to clean upafter deleting the account. To remove an old user account, follow these steps: 1.Open the Main Menu and choose SystemSettings.Users and Groups. You re prompted for the rootpassword. 2.Enter the rootpassword and click OK. The Fedora User Manager opens, as shown inFigure 22-5.3.To delete a user, highlight the user s name in thelist and click the Delete button (on the toolbar). Figure 22-4:The Actions drop-down menu. A pop-up window appears asking you to verifythat you want to remove the service. 4.Click Yes to remove the service, and in a snap, the service is gone! If you re a SuSE or Mandrake user, you can removeaservice from the command line by following thisprocedure: 1.Open a terminal window and give yourselfsuperuser privileges with the sucommand. 2.Type in the following command and pressEnter: # /sbin/chkconfig –del service-nameYou can also use the chkconfigcommand on Fedorasystems if you don t want to take the time to startthe Services Configuration Tool. When you delete a service with the ServicesConfiguration Tool, the underlying programsremain on your system; you ve deleted onlythe startup and shutdown scripts for the serv- ice. If you want to completely remove theservice and its underlying programs and datafiles, erase the package with the rpmcom- mand (see Technique 17).
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rsync: rsyncis a package that speeds up filetransfers by sending only the differences betweentwo versions of the same file. Disable this serviceif you aren t running an rsyncserver. saslauthd: SASL is an authentication protocolused by mail servers (and other networkservers). If you know you don t need it, disableit; if you re not sure, leave it alone. sendmail: The sendmailservice moves e-mailfrom your machine to other machines (that is, itdelivers the e-mail that you send). If you aren tsending e-mail from your Linux computer oryou re using a different mail server, you cansafely disable sendmail. services: This service provides a listing of allthe network services that your computer pro- vides to other clients. Disable this service unlessyou know that you need it. smb: If your computer acts as a Samba server(see Technique 11), you need the smbservice. Ifnot, you can safely disable this service. snmp: This service is the Simple NetworkManagement Protocol (SNMP) daemon. It serv- ices network management requests. If you reunsure whether you need this, disable it for now(SNMP has been the target of some hackattacks). snmptrapd: This is another component of SNMP. If you disabled snmp, you can disable snmptrapdtoo. swat: SWAT is a mini Web server that you use toconfigure the Samba server. If you aren t runninga Samba server, disable swat. time: This service is similar to the daytimeservice. It sends the current date and time (inseconds, since midnight January 1, 1900) to anyclient that connects to it. You can safely disablethis service. time-udp: This service is the same as time, exceptit serves UDP clients instead of TCP clients. Youcan safely disable this service as well. winbindd: This service pulls user account infor- mation from Windows servers, letting you useyour Windows user name and password on aLinux computer. If you aren t intimately sharingauthentication information with a Windowsserver, disable winbindd. Removing Unneeded ServicesHaving extra, unused services on your system canbe a security risk. You may have a service disabledat the moment, but a hacker or Trojan horse canturn it on and exploit its open ports. If you find an obscure service that you ll neveruse, remove it so it s not available for exploita- tion by a hacker or a Trojan horse. Removing the services you don t need is a good wayto secure your system. Don t worry about removing the services youaren t using now. Services are easy to reinstallif you find you need them. If you re a Fedora user, you can use the same ServicesConfiguration Tool that you use to start or disableservices (or configure a custom runlevel) to com- pletely remove services. To remove a service, Fedora users follow thesesteps: 1.Open the Main Menu and choose SystemSettings.Server Settings.Services. You re prompted to enter the rootpassword. 2.Type in the rootpassword and click OK. The Service Configuration window opens. 3.Highlight the service you want to remove andchoose Actions.Delete Service from the menubar (see Figure 22-4).
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1972.) Unless you re developing network soft- ware, you can safely disable this service. echo-upd: This service is the same as echo, except it services UDP clients instead of TCPclients. Unless you re developing network soft- ware, you can safely disable this service. irda: If you have a laptop, it most likely has aninfrared port built in. If you don t use it (or youdon t have one), disable irda. irqbalance: This service balances the workloadon a multi-CPU computer. If you have only a sin- gle CPU, disable irqbalance. isdn: This service manages ISDN network con- nections. If you don t havean ISDN connection, you don t need this service. ktalk: This is the KDE talkserver service. If youdon t chat with other users on your computer, disable ktalk. lisa: lisadiscovers SMB (Samba) computers onyour local network, giving you a Linux equivalentto the Windows network neighborhood. If youdon t have any SMB servers (that is, Samba orWindows servers), you can do without lisa. nfs: The NFS server service provides NFS filesharing to other NFS computers. NFS is a fre- quent target for hackers, so if you don t use NFSsharing, disable NFS (and the nfslockservice). nfslock: This service provides file locking forthe nfsservice. If you ve disabled nfs, disablenfslocktoo. ntpd: This service synchronizes the date/timeclock on your computer with network timeservers. Enable this protocol if you want to stan- dardize your computer s clock with the rest ofthe world, or disable it if you re happy settingthe clock yourself. rawdevices: This service is used by high- performance database servers to access yourhard disk without going through the normal filesystem route. If you re not using a program thatneeds raw disk access, disable rawdevices. apmd: This service monitors the battery level onlaptop computers. If you re not using a laptop, you probably don t need apmd. atd: This service runs jobs that you ve sched- uled with the atcommand. If you don t use theatcommand, disable this service. autofs: This service automatically mounts filesystems when you first use them. If you re notusing automount file systems (and unless you veconfigured them yourself, you re not), turn offthis service. autofsand the related automountsystem are frequently targeted by hackers. chargen: This silly little network service simplygenerates a stream of characters whenever aclient connects. You can safely live without thisservice. chargen-udp: chargen s cousin, this servicesends a stream of characters to a UDP-connectedclient. If you disable chargen, disable chargen- udpas well. cups: This service is the Common UNIX PrintingSystem. If you re not printing anything, you don tneed cups. (You can always turn it back on laterif you need it.) cups-lpd: This service provides an lp-style inter- face to cups. (lpis an older printer protocol.) Ifyou aren t sharing printers with other UNIX sys- tems (systems that use the lpprotocol), disablethis service. daytime: This network service tells a client com- puter what time it is (at least, what time yourcomputer thinks it is; if you re like us, your VCRalways thinks it s 12:00 and so do your comput- ers). daytimeis rarely used you can safely dis- able this service. daytime-upd: This service is the same as daytime, except it works with UDP clients instead of TCPclients. Because this protocol is rarely used, youcan safely disable this service. echo: This is another silly network service thatechoes client input back to the client. (It s inter- esting to note that this service and the chargenservice were both proposed by the same person27_
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runlevels at the command lineWe mention earlier that Mandrake users must resortto the command line to customize individual run- levels; this section describes how. The graphical runlevel editors are friendly and easyto use, but sometimes it s faster to hit the commandline. Regardless of whether you re using Mandrake, Fedora, or SuSE Linux, you can use the chkconfigcommand to adjust the services available at a par- ticular runlevel. You can also use chkconfigto viewyour service configuration. You must have superuserprivileges to use the chkconfigcommand. To view the configuration for a service, use the com- mand: chkconfig –list service-name. For example, to view the runlevels for your Web server (httpd), type in# chkconfig –list httpdhttpd: 0:off 1:off 2:off 3:on 4:on 5:on6:offIf you leave off the service name, chkconfigwilldisplay all services. To enable a service for a given runlevel, use the com- mand: chkconfig –level runlevelservice-name on. For example, to enable your Web server at runlevel 2, type in# chkconfig –level 2 httpd onTo disable a service for a given runlevel, use thecommand: chkconfig –level runlevelservice- name off. If you want to disable your Web server atlevel 5, type the command# chkconfig –level 5 httpd offSwitching to a new runlevelTo change into your new runlevel, follow these steps: 1.Open a terminal window and give yourselfsuperuser privileges with the su-command. 2.Enter the following command: # telinit runlevelFor example, to switch to runlevel 2, use this: # telinit 2Your system reboots and presents you with acommand line to log in. Any runlevels lower than 5 aren t graphical. If you don t like the new runlevel, use the telinitcommand to return to the previous runlevel and thenfine-tune the service settings to better suit yourneeds. Disabling Unused ServicesMost services leave open ports that can be exploitedby hackers. Shutting off the services that you don tuse regularly is a good way to close ports that hack- ers could use to gain access to your system. If you use a service infrequently, just turn itoff. It is still available when you need it youcan turn it on with a few clicks of the mouse, and off again when you re done. If you neveruse a service, you re better off removing italtogether. See the next section for details onremoving services. If you find a service that you don t think you ll need, we recommend disabling it for a while before youremove it, just in case you change your mind later. Here are some services that you might want todisable: You may not see all of these services on yourcomputer (depending on the software pack- ages you ve installed), or you may see a fewthat we haven t listed here. acpid: This service controls what happens whenyou press the power button on your computer. The configuration file for this service is empty bydefault, so acpiddoesn t actually do anything. (See info acpidfor more information.)
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Figure 22-3:The Mandrake Services editor. The name of each service is listed down the left- hand side. 5.If you re not sure what a particular servicedoes, click the Info button to see a shortdescription. 6.To start or stop a service, click the Start or Stopbutton on that row. 7.To enable a service, check the box next to thewords On Boot or Start When Requested. Todisable a service, clear the check box. Remember, you re enabling (or disabling) theservice for multiple run levels, not just the cur- rent runlevel. The services labeled Start When Requested arenetwork servers that start when a client tries toconnect to those services. If you disable a net- work service, the client will typically display amessage such as Connection Refused. The serv- ices labeled On Boot are background processesthat run all the time. 8.When you re finished, click OK to save yourchanges or Cancel to discard your changes, andthen close the Mandrake Control Center. Your changes will take effect the next time you bootyour computer. The column labeled Running displays Yes if agiven service is currently running or No if theservice is not running. The columns labeled B, 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and S indi- cate whether the service is enabled or disabledfor that runlevel. 6.To enable or disable a service, check (enable) or clear (disable) the check box next to the run- level you want to change. The check boxes are displayed below the list ofservices (refer to Figure 22-2). 7.When you re done customizing the runlevels, click Finish. 8.When prompted, click Yes to save your changesand close the YaST Control Center. Customizing runlevels in MandrakeMandrake Linux offers a runlevel editor that s a bitdifferent. The graphical runlevel editors in Fedoraand SuSE Linux let you customize the set of servicesenabled for each runlevel. Mandrake s graphical edi- tor lets you enable or disable services for allrun- levels. In other words, if you disable a service usingMandrake s editor, you ve disabled that service forall runlevels. You can customize individual runlevels, but you have to resort to the command line to do it. See the next section for the details. To enable or disable services using the MandrakeControl Center, follow these steps: 1.From the Main Menu, choose System. Configuration.Configure Your Computer. You re prompted for the superuser password. 2.Enter the superuser password and click OK. 3.When the Mandrake Control Center appears, click System. 4.Click Services. The Services editor displays the services installedon your computer, as shown in Figure 22-3.27_
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you can still switch to runlevel 5 (anda graphical desktop) when you need to man- age your system. Defining a runlevel with only the services youneed to run on your system gives you a leaner, meaner machine. Your users will thank you forthe extra speed. 4.Look at the Editing Runlevel indicator abovethe description frame to make sure the run- level displayed is correct. (You don t want toaccidentally edit the wrong runlevel.) 5.To edit the runlevel services, scroll through thelist and disable the services your users don tneed or enable services that would be handy. You can enable or disable a service by checkingor unchecking the check box to the left of theservice. If the box is checked, the service is on. You can get a quick description of the serviceby highlighting the service name and lookingat the description box. Most of the descrip- tions are pretty informative. 6.After you ve changed the services for your newcustom runlevel, click the Save icon on thetoolbar. You now have a leaner, meaner runlevel toworkin. Customizing runlevels in SuSESuSE Linux supports runlevels 1 through 6, butyoucan t modify runlevel 4 without resorting to a command-line interface. SuSE also adds a fewnewrunlevels: Runlevel Bcorresponds to the bootprocess, and runlevel Sis another single-user run- level (just like runlevel 1, but you can customize theservices to create two distinct single-user runlevels). We strongly recommend that you don tchange any of the services in runlevel B(boot) or runlevel 0(halt), or your system maybecome inoperable. If you need to customize runlevel 4 for somereason, see the man page for the chkconfigcommand. To turn SuSE services on or off, or edit the servicesincluded in each runlevel, follow these steps: Before you make any changes to your configu- ration, be sure that you have a working emer- gency repair disk. A working boot disk willgive you a way back into your system if youaccidentally lock yourself out. See Technique 24for details on making a boot disk. 1.From the main menu, choose System.YaST. You re prompted for the superuser password. 2.Enter the superuser password and click OK. 3.When the YaST Control Center appears, clickSystem (in the left-hand pane). 4.Click Runlevel Editor, and then click ExpertMode. The Runlevel Editor displays the services installedon your computer, as shown in Figure22-2. Figure 22-2:SuSE s Runlevel Editor. 5.To start or stop a service, highlight the serviceand click the Start/Stop/Refresh button (nearthe bottom of the window).
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you make any changes to your config- uration, be sure that you have a workingemergency repair disk. If you don t, you mightlock yourself out of your computer withoutgiving yourself a way back in. See Technique 24for details on making a boot disk. 1.From the Main Menu, choose System Settings. Server Settings.Services. You re prompted for the superuser password. 2.Enter the superuser password and click OK. The Service Configuration window opens, asshown in Figure 22-1. Use the ServiceConfiguration Tool to edit the services thatareenabled for your runlevel or to create anewrunlevel. Figure 22-1:The Service Configuration window. 3.To modify a runlevel other than the default (5), choose Edit Runlevel on the menu bar andselect the runlevel you want to customize. Runlevels 2 and 4 are user-definable Fedoraset them aside just for you. Be aware thatthey re not graphical, so you ll be working atthe command line. If you re managing a Webserver, database server, or e-mail server, con- figure runlevel 4 to run only the services youRunlevel basicsMost Linux distributions define the followingrunlevels: 0Halt1Single-user mode2User-definable nongraphical3Multiuser command line environment4User-definable nongraphical5Multiuser graphical environment6RebootThe different runlevels are used for different reasons. If you need the system all to yourself for repairs orsystem maintenance, booting into runlevel 1 guaran- tees that you re the only user on the system. However, you have to work from a terminal window becauserunlevel 1 doesn t support a graphical interface. If you need to save on the system load and yourusers don t need a graphical interface, you can bootyour system into runlevel 3. If your application soft- ware doesn t need graphics capabilities, your userswill recognize the boost in speed they get from run- ning at the lower runlevel. For all the bells and whistles of a graphical environ- ment, boot your system into runlevel 5. It s definitelythe most comfortable user environment. You can usethe command line if you want, but the graphicaloptions are also available. (Runlevel 5 is the defaultrunlevel for Fedora, Mandrake, and SuSE systems.) Customizing runlevels in FedoraCustomizing a runlevel is easy in Fedora or SuSELinux, but it s a little trickier in Mandrake. In thissection, we show you how to use Fedora s runleveleditor. If you re a SuSE or Mandrake user, skip aheadto the appropriate section. To turn Fedora services on or off or to edit the serv- ices included in your runlevel, follow these steps:
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22Spring CleaningEssentialsCleaning up is an essential part of running a secure and efficient sys- tem. You can use resources most efficiently if your system doesn thave an abundance of unused services hanging around in the back- ground, tying up CPU time. Unnecessary services are also an invitation tohackers. Can hackers exploit an open port you ve forgotten about? In thistechnique, we explain the best ways to avoid these pitfalls by Tidying up the runlevel you work in most often:Linux runlevels arecollections of services that define your system s capabilities. Each run- level has a purpose. You can choose from the predefined runlevels orcustomize runlevels for your use. Shutting down the extra services inthe runlevel you re using saves CPU time and system resources. Shutting down unused services:When you leave an unattended serv- ice running, listening for a client s request, it can accept a request fromeither an approved user or a hacker. Shutting down the services thatdon t need to be running is a good way to tighten system security. That s because when you shut down services, you close off the extraopen ports you re not using and hackers can t use them either. Getting rid of old users stuff: Old files are another waste of resources why take up good disk space for outdated data? When users move onand you clean up, be sure to remove all their old files; otherwise, you rejust wasting space by storing data that s unlikely to be used again. The following sections are about cleaning house. By doing so, you ll keepyour work environment neat, secure, and productive; and everyone willsave time! Running Down the RunlevelsYou can save time and make better use of your system resources by run- ning at the minimum runlevel you need. A runlevel is a collection of serv- ices. You can customize the services available at each runlevel to makethe most of your system resources. TechniqueSave Time By Customizing yourrunlevels Disabling unused serv- ices to close extra, openports Removing unused serv- ices with the ServiceConfiguration Tool Cleaning up after ex-users27_
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sacommand generates a list showing a subsetof all commands. (Commands executed only onceand commands with unprintable characters aregrouped into an entry labeled ***other*.) To see acomplete list, use this command: # sa –list-all-namesTo summarize the list by user, use this command: # sa -mFor a quick overview of system usage that includesstatistics by percentage of resource used, use thefollowing command: #sa -cCombine the sacommand with the grepcommand toshow usage of a specific program: # sa | grep programThe preceding command returns a report includingstatistics only on the command named. Keeping an eye on command usage can tellyou what people are up to. You can find out ifa lot of cping is going on that shouldn t be. These are just some of the options of the sacom- mand. For a complete list, check out the manpage man sa. Figure 21-5:The result set from the sacommand. The columns in the result set (from left to right) con- tain the following information: Total number of invocations Total elapsed time Combined system and user time in seconds Average number of I/O operations (not currentlyused in some versions of Linux) Memory usage in 1K blocks Command name
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