use -ok, findasks if you want to execute eachcommand. If you answer y(or Y, or yes, or Yes, . . .), findexecutes the command. If you answer anythingelse, findmoves on to the next file. When you select a large number of files, executingthe -exec(or -ok) action on each file, one at a time, can be painfully slow. Many Linux commands canprocess multiple files in a single pass, and you canuse findto produce the argument list for those commands. Building Complex Commandswith xargsThe xargscommand builds long command lines foryou. xargsreads filenames from the output ofanother command (like find) and builds commandsby using those filenames. For example, look at thefollowing command: $ echo /tmp/icons.tar | xargs tar -tvf xargsreads the filename from the echocommandand constructs the new command: $ tar -tvf /tmp/icons.tarxargsisn t particularly useful when you need toprocess a single filename, but findusually producesa whole mess of filenames. To use findand xargstogether, craft a findcommand that locates the filesthat you re interested in and use the action -print0to echo the selected filenames. Pipe the output ofthe findcommand to xargslike this: $ find /home -user ted -print0 | xargs -0-e grep -n secret password When you execute this command, find lists thenames of all files owned by user tedand feeds thatlist to xargs, and xargsthen constructs (and exe- cutes) a grepcommand for you. xargstries to groupmany files into a single command. If you find thethree files /home/ted/secrets, /home/ted/mail, and/home/ted/work, for example, xargsexecutes thecommand: grep secret password /home/ted/secrets/home/ted/mail /home/ted/work rather than three separate commands.
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diskusagedisplays a numeric user IDinstead of a user name, the user account hasprobably been deleted. This is a quick andeasy way to find abandoned files and recycledisk space. Executing commands with findIt s time to switch gears and look at a very power- ful (and occasionally dangerous) feature of find: the -execaction. You ve seen that the -print, -ls, and -printfactions display information about selected files. The-execaction executes a program of your choosingwith the files that findhas selected. Suppose thatyou re a system administrator and one of yourcoworkers has recently left the company. Your taskis to find all the files owned by that user (call himted) and give them to user franklin. The -userqual- ifier will locate the files that you re interested in, and-execwill execute a command (in this case, chown) on each of those files: $ find / -user ted -exec chown franklin {} ; This command may look a bit cryptic to you (it surelooks cryptic to us). findexecutes the -execactiononce for each selected file. When findexecutesthecommand, it replaces {}with the name of theselected file. You must include a quoted semicolonat the end of the command ( ; ). You can probablyimagine all sorts of uses for the -execaction removing old files, moving certain files to otherlocations, fixing permissions, and so on. Never, never, never use the -execaction with- out first viewing the list of qualified files with -lsor -print. Never. Make sure that youknow exactly which files will be acted upon. To avoid running findtwice (once to see which filesare selected and again to execute the required com- mands), use the -okaction instead of -exec. WhenTo use the diskusagescript, follow these steps: 1.Open your favorite editor and type in the textshown in Listing 12-2. 2.Save your script to a file named diskusagein adirectory that s included in your search path. /usr/local/binis usually a good place. 3.Use chmodto make the file executable: chmod a+x /usr/local/bin/diskusage To use diskusage, use the findcommand to locatethe files that you re interested in and use -printftocreate the output required by diskusage: $ find /home -type f -printf %U %s %u\n | diskusage211128211 franklin602579 10014525391478 root8756011463 freddieWhenever findlocates a qualifying file, it feeds theowner ID, file size, and owner name to diskusage. diskusageadds up the disk space consumed by eachuser and prints the results when findstops feedingit. The nice thing about this combination is that youcan select files so many ways with find, and no mat- ter which qualifiers you choose, diskusagehappilysums things up for you. For example, you can changethe previous command to see disk space, by user, that hasn t been accessed within the last 30 days: $ find /home -type f -atime +30 -printf %U %s %u\n | diskusage128211 franklin602579 10014000324962 root22315532 freddieIf you compare these results with the previousresults, you ll see that although freddie is a disk hog, he s at least using the data that he s storing. User1001, on the other hand, hasn t even logged in dur- ing the last month.
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diskusagedisplays a numeric user IDinstead of a user name, the user account hasprobably been deleted. This is a quick andeasy way to find abandoned files and recycledisk space. Executing commands with findIt s time to switch gears and look at a very power- ful (and occasionally dangerous) feature of find: the -execaction. You ve seen that the -print, -ls, and -printfactions display information about selected files. The-execaction executes a program of your choosingwith the files that findhas selected. Suppose thatyou re a system administrator and one of yourcoworkers has recently left the company. Your taskis to find all the files owned by that user (call himted) and give them to user franklin. The -userqual- ifier will locate the files that you re interested in, and-execwill execute a command (in this case, chown) on each of those files: $ find / -user ted -exec chown franklin {} ; This command may look a bit cryptic to you (it surelooks cryptic to us). findexecutes the -execactiononce for each selected file. When findexecutesthecommand, it replaces {}with the name of theselected file. You must include a quoted semicolonat the end of the command ( ; ). You can probablyimagine all sorts of uses for the -execaction removing old files, moving certain files to otherlocations, fixing permissions, and so on. Never, never, never use the -execaction with- out first viewing the list of qualified files with -lsor -print. Never. Make sure that youknow exactly which files will be acted upon. To avoid running findtwice (once to see which filesare selected and again to execute the required com- mands), use the -okaction instead of -exec. WhenTo use the diskusagescript, follow these steps: 1.Open your favorite editor and type in the textshown in Listing 12-2. 2.Save your script to a file named diskusagein adirectory that s included in your search path. /usr/local/binis usually a good place. 3.Use chmodto make the file executable: chmod a x /usr/local/bin/diskusage To use diskusage, use the findcommand to locatethe files that you re interested in and use -printftocreate the output required by diskusage: $ find /home -type f -printf %U %s %u\n | diskusage211128211 franklin602579 10014525391478 root8756011463 freddieWhenever findlocates a qualifying file, it feeds theowner ID, file size, and owner name to diskusage. diskusageadds up the disk space consumed by eachuser and prints the results when findstops feedingit. The nice thing about this combination is that youcan select files so many ways with find, and no mat- ter which qualifiers you choose, diskusagehappilysums things up for you. For example, you can changethe previous command to see disk space, by user, that hasn t been accessed within the last 30 days: $ find /home -type f -atime 30 -printf %U %s %u\n | diskusage128211 franklin602579 10014000324962 root22315532 freddieIf you compare these results with the previousresults, you ll see that although freddie is a disk hog, he s at least using the data that he s storing. User1001, on the other hand, hasn t even logged in dur- ing the last month.
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The date and time of the most recent modification The file s nameDisplaying specific info with -printfIn most cases, the -lsaction gives you more infor- mation than you really need. You can use the -printfaction to view only those nuggets of knowl- edge that you want. To use -printf, you have tofollow the action with directives that specify theinformation you want to display. For example, takealook at the following command: find ~ -size +(unit 5M) -printf %p %s %uThis command displays the file s complete pathname(%p), size in bytes (%s), and owner (%u), like this: $ find ~ -size +$(unit 5M) -printf %p %s %u/home/freddie/bigdatafile 8388608 freddie/home/freddie/tmp/deleteme 6291457 freddie-printfoffers a wide variety of directives (see manfindfor a complete list), but we show you only a fewof the more useful ones in Table 12-4. TABLE12-4: COMMONPRINTFDIRECTIVESDirectiveMeaning-%pComplete pathname of the selected file-%fSame as %pwith the leading directory namesstripped off%hSame as %pwith the filename stripped off the end%uName of the user who owns the selected file%U Numeric user ID of the user who owns theselected file%sSize of file (in bytes) Checking disk usage by userThe -printfaction is extremely useful when youwant to feed the results from a findcommand intoanother program. With -printf, you can customizethe output from a findcommand to fit the needs ofthe program that you re running. Listing 12-2 showsa shell script that summarizes disk usage by user. LISTING12-2: DISKUSAGE#!/bin/bash# Filename: diskusage# Create three arrays, each indexed bynumeric user ID# $sizes[] will accumulate the diskspace consumed by each user# $uids[] will store the numericuser ID for each user# $users[] will store the user namefor each user# The caller will send us lines of theform# numeric-user-id filesize usernamewhile read uid filesize userdo# Find the current amount of spaceused by this $uidsize=${sizes[$uid]:-0} # Add the space consumed by thisfile and store it back# in $sized[$uid] let sizes[$uid]=$filesize+$size# Store the numeric user ID anduser name toouids[$uid]=$uidusers[$uid]=$userdone# We ve now accumulated all of the diskspace usage # for the caller, display the resultsfor uid in ${uids[*]} doprintf %15d\t%s\n ${sizes[$uid]} ${users[$uid]} done16_
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find ~ -size +$(unit 5M) -ls35525 8204 -rw-rw-r– 1 freddie freddie8388608 Dec 20 09:52 /home/freddie/bigdatafile44201 6156 -rw-rw-r– 1 freddie freddie6291457 Dec 20 09:52/home/freddie/tmp/deleteme-lsgives you far more details than are provided by -print. -lsdisplays the following columns (from leftto right): The file s inodenumber (a number that uniquelyidentifies each file within its file system) The number of 1K blocks consumed by the file The file s type and permissions The number of hard links to the file The file s owner The file s size (in bytes) Acting on What You FindAs we mention earlier in Finding Files with find, actions tell findwhat to do when it finds a qualifyingfile. The -printcommand that you ve been tackingon the end of each findcommand displays the nameof each qualifying file, but findcan do a whole lotmore than that. The following sections give you thetimesaving highlights. Cracking open a file s info with -lsYou can use the -lsaction to see more details abouteach selected file: $ find ~ -size +$(unit 5M) -print/home/freddie/bigdatafile/home/freddie/tmp/deletemeTABLE12-3 (continued) QualifierResult-amin [+|-]nSame as above except that nspecifies minutes instead of days. -cmin [+|-]n-mmin [+|-]n-daytimeMeasure -atime, -ctime, -mtime,-amin, -cmin, and -mminfrom the beginning of the current dayrather than exactly 24 hours ago. -size [+|-] nSelect files nbytes long. If nis preceded by a +, select files larger than n. If nis preceded by a-, select files smaller than n. -emptySelect empty files and directories. -type filetypeSelect files of the given filetype. filetypemay be bto select block devices, cto select charac- ter devices, dto select directories, pto select named pipes, fto select regular files, lto selectsymbolic links, or sto select sockets. -user usernameSelect files owned by the given usernameor groupname. -group groupname-nouserSelect orphan files (that is, files owned by users or groups that no longer exist on your system). -ngroup-perm [+|-]Select files based on their permissions. The most useful values for permissionsare permissions-perm +ug+s; this matches any files that are setuidor setgidand could be used toimpersonateother users (see Technique 57 for more information). -xdevSelect files only on the given file system. Use this option to avoid searching other disk drives andremote file systems.
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the unitfunction to make findbehave a bit morepredictably. For example, the following command$ find ~ -size +$(unit 2M) -printtranslates into$ find ~ -size +2097152c -printPress Esc-E to view the translated command linebefore you press Enter. (Notice that unitincludedthe csuffix, which forces findto turn off its funkyrounding trick.) The unitfunction translates kilo- bytes (Kor k), megabytes (Mor m), and gigabytes (Gor g). Joining qualifications with AND and OR operatorsBy joining qualifications, you can get more mileageout of the findcommand. To quickly find large files that haven t beenused in a while, combine -sizeand -atime. For example, use the following command to searchfor files 5 megabytes or larger that haven t beenused in the last 30 days: $ find ~ -size +$(unit 5M) -atime +30 -printBy default, findjoinsmultiple qualifiers togetherwith the AND operator. Given two qualifiers -size +$(unit 5M)and -atime +30 a file qualifiesonly if it meets both criteria. You can also join qualifiers with the OR operator. Tofind all files that are either empty or haven t beenused in a while (or both), stick an -orbetween thequalifiers, like this: $ find ~ -size 0 -or -atime +30 -printWith the -oroperator, a file must meet either(orboth) of the qualifiers to be selected. You canalso use -notto reverse a qualifier (for example, -not -size 0) and -andto explicitly andqualifierstogether. Use quoted parentheses to build complexexpressions. For example, the following commandfinds large files (larger than 5M) that have not beenaccessed in the previous 30 days and adds emptyfiles to the list as well: find / ( -size +$(unit 5M) -and -atime+30 ) -or -empty -lsThe -emptyqualifier is a synonym for -size 0. Perusing commonly used qualificationsTable 12-3 shows the most commonly used qualifiers. TABLE12-3: COMMONLYUSEDQUALIFIERSQualifierResult-namepatternSelect files that match the given filename pattern. -iname patternSelect files that match the given filename pattern, ignoring differences in letter case. -regex expressionSelect files that match the given pathname regular expression (similar to -nameexcept that -regexmatches the entire path where -namematches only the filename). -iregex expressionSelect files that match the given pathname regular expression, ignoring differences in letter case(similar to -inameexcept that -iregexmatches the entire path where -namematches only thefilename). -atime [+|-]nSelect files that have been accessed (-atime), attribute-changed (-ctime), or content-changed -ctime [+|-]n(-mtime) ndays ago. If nis preceded by a +, select files last accessed more than ndays ago. If n-mtime [+|-]nis preceded by a -, select files last accessed within that previous ndays. (continued)
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2: EXAMPLESUSINGTHE-SIZEQUALIFIERCommandResult-size 2048cFiles exactly 2048 bytes long-size +2048cFiles 2049 bytes or larger-size -2048cFiles smaller than 2048 bytes-size 2kFiles between 1024 and 2048 bytes long-size +2k Files larger than 2048 bytes-size -2kFiles smaller than 1025 bytes -size +1kFiles larger than 1024 bytes and smaller -size -3kthan 2049 bytesThe rounding that findperforms can be confusing, so we ve written a short shell function that trans- lates a value like 2M (megabytes) or 3G (gigabytes) into the equivalent number of bytes. Listing 12-1shows the unitfunction. LISTING12-1: THEUNITFUNCTIONfunction unit () { # Extract the last character from# the first (and only) parameter. # # Given a value like 5M, the suffix # is the character M suffix=${1: -1: 1} # Remove the suffix from the argument# and we should be left with number # units ( 5 if we were given 5M) count=${1%%$suffix} case $suffix inK|k) echo $(expr $count \* 1024)c;; M|m) echo $(expr $count \* 1048576)c;; G|g) echo $(expr $count \* 1073741824)c;; *) echo $1 c esac; } You see a list of files whose dates of last modifica- tion are greater than seven days ago. You can findfiles modified within a range of dates by using boththe +and -signs. For example, to find all files modi- fied four or five days ago, use this command: $ find ~ find . -mtime +3 -mtime -6 -printRead this command as modified more than threedays ago but less than six days ago. You can use the -atimequalifier to find unused (or atleast not recently used) user files on your system: $ find / -atime +90 -printFiltering by file sizeThe findcommand also lets you filter files based ontheir size. The -size nqualifier selects any fileswhose size is n. The +and -tricks that you can use for time qualifica- tions work with -sizequalifications, too: -size +nselects all files larger than n,and -size -nselects allfiles smaller than n. When you use -size n, you canspecify nin terms of bytes, kilobytes, or 512-byteblocks: To specify a byte count, follow -size nwith a c. To specify a number of kilobytes (1024 bytes), follow -size nwith the letter k. The default unit is 512-byte blocks, but you canmake your intention explicit with a suffix of b. As findexamines each file, it rounds the file s sizeup to the nearest unit (kilobyte or block) and thenapplies the qualifier. For example, -size 2kselectsfiles between 1025 and 2048 bytes long. Table 12-2 shows a few examples using the -sizequalifier.
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Your Search with the find Commandfindgives you a wide variety of qualifiers, and thissection delves into the more timesaving ones. Fordetails on using qualifiers with find, see the preced- ing section. Doing updated filename searchesTwo of the most frequently used qualifiers are -nameand -iname, both of which must be followed by a filename pattern: -nametells findto operate on any files thatmatch the given pattern. -inamedoes the same except that it ignores casedifferences. You can use the normal shell wildcards with -nameand -iname. For example, -name *.c matches anyfilenames that end with .c. If you include wildcards, you must surround the filename pattern with quotesto prevent the shell from expanding them beforefindgets a chance to see it. The -nameand -inamequalifiers make findvery similar to the locatecommand. locatesearches through a database of filenames, whereas findsearches through the file sys- tem. findgives you more up-to-date resultsbut takes much longer to perform a thoroughsearch. Adding time-based qualificationsYou can also search for files based on time of lastaccess, content-modification time, or attribute- modification time. The content-modification time ofa file is updated whenever you write to that file. Theattribute-modification time of a file is updated when- ever you make a change to the file s attributes (bychanging ownership or permissions, for example). Table 12-1 lists qualifications that select files basedon their timestamps. TABLE12-1: QUALIFICATIONSTHATSEARCHFORTIMESTAMPSQualificationWhat It Finds-atime nTrue if the file was last accessed ndays ago-amin nTrue if the file was last accessed nminutesago-ctime nTrue if the file s attributes were last changedndays ago-cmin nTrue if the file s attributes were last changednminutes ago-mtime nTrue if the file s contents were last changedndays ago-mmin nTrue if the file s contents were last changednminutes agoTo find files in your home directory (and all subdi- rectories) that were last changed a week ago, usethis command: $ find ~ -mtime 7 -printIf you run this command, you may be surprised bythe results. -mtime 7does notshow you all the filesmodified in the previous seven days; it shows thefiles modified exactlyseven days ago. To locate filesmodified inthe previous seven days (yesterday, orthe day before, or the day before that, . . .), specify -mtime -7(note the minus sign in front of the 7), asfollows: $ find ~ -mtime -7 -printYou can read that command as find files where thedate of last modification is less than seven daysago. Now suppose you change the command to this: $ find ~ -mtime +7 -print16_
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The database is incomplete because the nightlydatabase update excludes several directories(/tmp, /var/tmp, /usr/tmp, /afs, and /net) andremote file systems. If you don t have superuser privileges, or yoursearch requirements are more complex than the sim- ple filename matching that locateprovides, youneed to use the findcommand, which is discussednext. Finding Files with findThe findcommand is one of the most complex anduseful commands that you ll find in Linux. findsearches through a file system looking for files thatfit a pattern (which you define) and then performsan action on those files. The most frequently usedfindcommand searches for a file with a specificname, starting in the current directory: $ find . -name drinks.txt -print ./recipes/ drinks.txtWhen you use the findcommand, you have to pro- vide three pieces of information: Location:Where to start searching. Typically, you specify .to start searching in the currentdirectory or /to start searching at the root ofyour file system tree. If you list multiple direc- tory names, findsearches in all those directorytrees. Qualifications:Which files should be included inthe result. In the example, freddie is looking for afile named drinks.txt. See the next section fordetails on handy qualifiers. Actions: What you want findto do when itlocates a qualifying file. In the example, -printsimply echoes the relative pathname of the file. See Acting on What You Find, later in this chap- ter, for details on putting actions to good use. You can use locateto find data files, directories, orprograms. For example, if you can t remember wherethe ifconfigprogram is located, just type locateifconfigand press Enter. You instantly see a list ofall the files on your system whose names includeifconfig: $ locate ifconfig/usr/share/man/man8/ifconfig.8.gz/usr/share/man/de/man8/ifconfig.8.gz/usr/share/man/fr/man8/ifconfig.8.gz/usr/share/man/pt/man8/ifconfig.8.gz/sbin/ifconfigThat s pretty close but not exactly what you werelooking for. Save some time by using a regularexpression (also known as a filename pattern) tonarrow down the results: $ locate -r /ifconfig$ /sbin/ifconfigThe -rflag tells locateto expect a regular expres- sion. In this case, you want a list of all filenameswhere /ifconfigappears at the end of the name. ($means end of name; see man -S 7 regexfor acomplete list of valid regular expressions.) The locatecommand runs quickly because itsearches through a database rather than thecomplete file system. It s a great tool for sim- ple filename searches. Like anything that s simple and easy, the locatecommand has a few drawbacks: The database becomes outdated quickly if youadd, delete, or rename many files during the day. If you have superuser privileges, you can updatethe database yourself. Use the same commandthat the nightly update job executes: /etc/cron.daily/slocate.cron.
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12Finding What You NeedWe ve all been there you create a new file, and then you forgetwhere you put it and what you called it. How do you find it again? Fortunately Linux has a few options for finding lost data fast. In this technique, we introduce you to the findcommand. findcansearch through your file system looking for files based upon a diverse setof qualifications that you can combine to create complex searches. Withfind, you can search for your file based on information like the modifica- tion date, the file size, ownership, and other file attributes. findalsoworks with the xargscommand to build complex commands based onsearch results. We also show you how to use the locatecommand tosearch through a system-maintained catalog of files and how to updatethat catalog to be sure it contains current entries. We ve also included a diskusageutility that you can use in conjunctionwith findto play find the disk hog. If you need to free up resources, this is a quick way to find out who s using all the space. This technique is all about finding files fast, with whatever informationyou have on hand. You know what you need to find. You might notremember it s name, but we ll help you find it anyway. Finding Files with locateEvery night, an automatically scheduled program waltzes across yourdisk drive(s) and records all the filenames it can find in a database. Thelocatecommand searches through that database to find files with a particular name. If you find your installation of Linux is missing the locatecommand, you can add it by installing the appropriate RPM package: for SuSE, install findutils-locate-version.rpm; for Mandrake, installslocate-version.rpm; for Fedora, install slocate-version.rpm. TechniqueSave Time By Locating files by name Finding files by their quali- fications and attributes Finding out who s hoggingthe disk space Executing simple com- mands with findandexec Building complex com- mands with findandxargs16_
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